Non-Metals 🌟

Hydrogen Gas 💧

Formula: H₂ 🧪

At room temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas exists as a diatomic molecule, H₂ 🌬️. It is the lightest element in the universe! 🌌

Occurrence 🌍

Hydrogen occurs in water 💧, oils 🛢️, and natural gas 🔥.

Preparation of Hydrogen Gas 🔬

1. Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen ⚗️

• By reacting a reactive metal ⚙️ with a dilute acid 🧪.
• By reacting a reactive metal ⚙️ with water 💦.

Test for Hydrogen 🔍

Hydrogen gas burns with a pop sound 💥 when a burning splint is introduced to it 🔥.

Physical Properties of Hydrogen 🌈

• It is colorless 🌈.
• It is odorless 👃.
• It is less dense than air 🌬️.
• It has a boiling point of -253°C ❄️.

Chemical Properties of Hydrogen ⚗️

• It has no effect on litmus paper 📜.
• It burns in oxygen with a blue flame 🔥 producing a pop sound 💥.
• Example reaction: 2H₂(g) + O₂(g) → 2H₂O(g) 🌊.

Uses of Hydrogen Gas 🚀

• In the manufacture of ammonia in the Haber process 🏭.
• In the manufacture of margarine from vegetable oil via catalytic hydrogenation 🥯.
• As a fuel in rockets 🚀.
• As a reducing agent ⚗️.

Oxygen Gas 🌬️

Formula: O₂ 🧪

Oxygen makes up about 21% of air by volume 🌫️. It is essential for life! 🌱

Preparation of Oxygen 🔬

1. Laboratory Preparation of Oxygen ⚗️

• Using potassium chlorate and manganese (IV) oxide as a catalyst ⚗️.

Example reaction: 2KClO₃(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O₂(g) 🔄.

Test for Oxygen 🔍

Oxygen gas relights a glowing splint introduced in its container 🔥.

Physical Properties of Oxygen 🌈

• It is colorless 🌈.
• It is odorless 👃.
• It is slightly soluble in water 💧.
• It supports burning 🔥.

Sulphur Dioxide 🌋

Formula: SO₂ 🧪

Sulphur burns in oxygen with a blue flame 🔥 to form sulphur dioxide 🌫️.

Properties of Sulphur Dioxide 🌡️

• It has a strong smell 👃.
• It does not burn or support burning 🔥.
• It is fairly soluble in water 💧, forming sulphurous acid 💧.
• It decolourizes acidified potassium permanganate, as it is a reducing agent ⚗️.
• It turns aqueous potassium dichromate (VI) from orange to green 🟠➡️🟢.
• It is denser than air 🌬️.

Uses of Sulphur Dioxide 🏭

• As a bleaching agent in paper manufacturing 📄.
• As a food preservative because it kills bacteria 🍏.
• In the production of sulphuric acid via the Contact Process ⚗️.

Water 💧

Formula: H₂O 🧪

Properties of Water 💦

• It is essential for all living organisms 🌱.
• It is used for cooking 🍳, washing 🧼, and industrial processes 🏭.
• It is a solvent for many substances 💧.

Purification of Water 💧

Water undergoes filtration and chlorination at water treatment plants to make it safe for drinking 🚰.

Types of Water 💧

Soft Water: Easily forms lather with soap 🧼.

Hard Water: Contains dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds, making it harder to form lather with soap 🚫🧼.

Advantages of Hard Water 👍

• Better taste due to dissolved minerals 🍽️.
• Calcium compounds support healthy bones and teeth 🦴.

Carbon and Its Allotropes 🌑

Carbon exists in several allotropes, including graphite ✏️, diamond 💎, and amorphous carbon 🌑.

Graphite ✏️

• Structure: Made of flat sheets of carbon atoms with free-moving electrons between layers, making it a conductor of electricity ⚡.
• Properties: Soft, slippery, and conductive 🧊.
• Uses: As a lubricant, electrode in electrolysis, and in pencils ✏️.

Diamond 💎

• Structure: Each carbon atom forms four strong covalent bonds in a tetrahedral shape 🔺.
• Properties: Very hard 💪, high melting point 🔥, transparent, and non-conductive 🚫.
• Uses: In cutting tools 🔪, drilling devices 🛠️, and as jewelry 💍.

Amorphous Carbon 🌑

Examples include coal and charcoal, which are used as absorbents and for filtering 🧼.

Chemical Properties of Carbon ⚗️

All forms of carbon react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide 🌫️:

Example Reaction: C(s) + O₂(g) → CO₂(g) 🌫️.

Exercises 📝

1. Carbon exists in two different forms with distinct structures. Identify these forms, their uses, and explain why both diamond and graphite have high melting points 🔥.

2. Describe the role of water in industrial and home use, and outline the main stages in water purification 💧.

3. Explain the process and importance of the Haber Process for the production of ammonia. List the raw materials and conditions necessary for this industrial process 🏭.

Carbonates, Oxides, and Hydroxides 🌍

Calcium Carbonate 🧪

Chemical Formula: CaCO₃ 🧪

Special Name: Limestone or Marble 🏔️

Calcium carbonate is a white solid that is insoluble in water 💧. When strongly heated 🔥, it decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:

Reaction: CaCO₃(s) → CaO(s) + CO₂(g) 🌫️.

Uses of Calcium Carbonate 🏭

• In the manufacture of cement 🏗️.
• For making glass 🥃.
• To remove impurities (like silica) as slag in the blast furnace 🔥.

Calcium Oxide 🧪

Chemical Formula: CaO 🧪

Special Name: Quicklime ⚡

Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water 💧 to form calcium hydroxide, releasing heat 🔥:

Reaction: CaO(s) + H₂O(l) → Ca(OH)₂(aq) + Heat 🔥.

Calcium Hydroxide 🧪

Chemical Formula: Ca(OH)₂ 🧪

Special Name: Slaked Lime or Lime Water 💧

When carbon dioxide is bubbled through calcium hydroxide, it turns milky due to the formation of calcium carbonate 🌫️:

Reaction: Ca(OH)₂(aq) + CO₂(g) → CaCO₃(s) + H₂O(l) 💧.

If excess carbon dioxide is bubbled through, the calcium carbonate dissolves, forming calcium hydrogen carbonate:

Reaction: CaCO₃(s) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g) → Ca(HCO₃)₂(aq) 💧.

Uses of Calcium Oxide and Calcium Hydroxide 🏭

• Used to treat acidic soils in agriculture 🌱.
• For neutralizing acidic industrial waste before disposal 🚫.
• Calcium hydroxide is used in plaster of Paris for broken limbs 🦴.
• Calcium oxide is used to line blast furnaces and remove silica impurities in iron extraction 🔥.
• As a drying agent for gases, especially ammonia 💨.

Ammonia 🧪

Chemical Formula: NH₃ 🧪

Ammonia is a colorless gas with a strong, pungent smell 👃.

Preparation of Ammonia 🔬

Laboratory Preparation of Ammonia ⚗️

Ammonia gas can be prepared by heating an alkali with an ammonium compound:

Reaction: Ca(OH)₂(aq) + 2NH₄Cl(aq) → CaCl₂(aq) + 2H₂O(l) + 2NH₃(g) 💨.

Method of Collection: Ammonia is collected by downward displacement of air, as it is less dense than air 🌬️.

Drying Agent Used: Calcium oxide ⚗️. Calcium chloride and concentrated sulfuric acid should not be used as they react with ammonia 🚫.

Physical Properties of Ammonia 🌈

• Colorless gas with a pungent odor 👃.
• Less dense than air 🌬️.
• Highly soluble in water 💧.
• Liquefies easily at -33°C or under compression, making it transportable in tanks 🚚.

Chemical Properties of Ammonia ⚗️

• Turns damp red litmus paper blue, indicating it is alkaline 🔵.
• Burns in pure oxygen with a yellow-brown flame 🔥.
• Dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH) 💧.
• Acts as a reducing agent, reducing metal oxides lower in the reactivity series ⚗️.

Example Reaction: 3CuO(s) + 2NH₃(g) → 3Cu(s) + 3H₂O(l) + N₂(g) 💨.

Test for Ammonia 🔍

Ammonia gas turns damp red litmus paper blue 🔵, indicating its alkaline nature.

Industrial Preparation of Ammonia - The Haber Process 🏭

Ammonia is produced industrially by synthesizing nitrogen and hydrogen gases:

Reaction: N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) ⇌ 2NH₃(g) 💨.

Essential Conditions for the Haber Process ⚙️

• Catalyst: Iron ⚙️.
• Temperature: 350°C to 450°C 🌡️.
• Pressure: 350 atmospheres 💨.

Uses of Ammonia 🏭

• Used as a refrigerant in cooling systems ❄️.
• In the manufacture of explosives 💣.
• In the production of plastics and glue 🧴.
• In cleaning agents 🧼.
• As a key ingredient in fertilizers like ammonium sulfate, nitrate, and phosphate 🌱.

Ammonia-Based Fertilizers 🌱

Ammonia reacts with acids to form nitrogen-rich fertilizers:

• (NH₄)₂SO₄ (ammonium sulfate) 🌱.
• NH₄NO₃ (ammonium nitrate) 🌱.
• (NH₄)₃PO₄ (ammonium phosphate) 🌱.

Example Reaction: NH₃(g) + HNO₃(aq) → NH₄NO₃(aq) 🌱.

Pollution 🚫

Definition: Pollution is the contamination of the environment with harmful substances called pollutants 🌍.

Types of Pollution 🌍

• Land Pollution: Caused by non-biodegradable materials like plastics and glass 🗑️.
• Water Pollution: Caused by oil spills, industrial waste, acid rain, and debris 💧.
• Air Pollution: Caused by carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, soot, and lead compounds 🌫️.

Effects of Common Pollutants ⚠️

Carbon Monoxide (CO): Produced by incomplete combustion, it can bind with hemoglobin, preventing oxygen transport in blood 🩸.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): Created from burning fossil fuels, it causes acid rain 🌧️ and respiratory issues 😷.

Oxides of Nitrogen (NO_x): Found in car exhausts, they damage lung tissue and form smog 🌫️.

Solutions to Pollution 🌱

• Recycling waste products ♻️.
• Setting up emission standards and banning certain pollutants 🚫.
• Using catalytic converters in engines 🚗.
• Conserving non-renewable resources like fossil fuels ⛽.

Types of Water 💧

Soft Water 💧

Soft water easily forms lather with soap 🧼 and is free of calcium and magnesium ions.

Hard Water 💧

Hard water does not form lather easily with soap 🧼 due to the presence of dissolved calcium and magnesium ions, which react with soap to produce an insoluble product called scum 🚫.

Causes of Hardness in Water 💧

Hardness in water is caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds, such as calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium sulfate.

Types of Hardness 💧

Temporary Hardness 💧

Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of calcium hydrogen carbonate in water. It can be removed by boiling the water 🔥, which precipitates calcium carbonate:

Reaction: Ca(HCO₃)₂(aq) → CaCO₃(s) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g) 💨.

Permanent Hardness 💧

Permanent hardness is caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds (e.g., calcium sulfate) that cannot be removed by boiling 🔥. It can be treated by adding sodium carbonate, which precipitates calcium and magnesium ions:

Reactions:

Na₂CO₃(aq) + CaSO₄(aq) → CaCO₃(s) + Na₂SO₄(aq) 💧.

Na₂CO₃(aq) + MgSO₄(aq) → MgCO₃(s) + Na₂SO₄(aq) 💧.

Advantages of Hard Water 👍

• Better taste due to dissolved minerals 🍽️.
• Calcium compounds support healthy bones and teeth 🦴.
• Some studies suggest it may help prevent heart disease ❤️.

Disadvantages of Hard Water 👎

• Increased soap consumption due to scum formation 🧼.
• Scale formation in kettles, pipes, boilers, and radiators, reducing their efficiency and possibly causing blockages 🚫.

Carbon - Allotropes and Properties 🌑

Carbon exists in several forms known as allotropes, including graphite ✏️, diamond 💎, and amorphous carbon 🌑.

Graphite ✏️

Graphite is a black, crystalline form of carbon that is a good conductor of electricity ⚡ due to its free-moving electrons. The carbon atoms are arranged in flat layers that slide over each other easily, making graphite soft and slippery 🧊.

Properties of Graphite 🌈

• Good conductor of electricity ⚡.
• Soft and slippery, allowing layers to slide over each other 🧊.
• High melting point due to strong covalent bonds within layers 🔥.

Uses of Graphite 🏭

• Used as a lubricant 🧴.
• Electrodes in electrolysis ⚗️.
• Pencil lead, as it leaves a grey streak on paper ✏️.

Diamond 💎

Diamond is a colorless, hard crystalline solid with each carbon atom forming four covalent bonds in a tetrahedral structure 🔺.

Properties of Diamond 🌈

• Hardest known natural material 💪.
• Very high melting point (~3700°C) 🔥.
• Transparent and has a brilliant luster ✨.

Uses of Diamond 💍

• In cutting tools 🔪 and drilling devices 🛠️.
• As gemstones in jewelry 💍.

Amorphous Carbon 🌑

Forms of amorphous carbon include coal and charcoal. Charcoal is used in sugar refining and as a filtering agent due to its porous nature 🧼.

Chemical Properties of Carbon ⚗️

All forms of carbon react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide 🌫️:

Reaction: C(s) + O₂(g) → CO₂(g) 🌫️.

Exercises 📝

1. Explain why graphite is a good conductor of electricity ⚡ while diamond is not 🚫.

2. Describe the properties and uses of the different forms of carbon 🌑.

3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of hard water in household and industrial use 🏭.

Calcium Compounds 🧪

Calcium Carbonate CaCO₃ 🧪

• Special Names: Limestone or Marble 🏔️.
• Used in cement and glass manufacture 🏭.
• Acts as a slag in blast furnaces to remove impurities 🔥.

Calcium Oxide (CaO) 🧪

• Special Name: Quicklime ⚡.
• Reacts vigorously with water 💧 to form calcium hydroxide, releasing heat 🔥.

Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) 🧪

• Special Name: Slaked Lime or Lime Water 💧.
• Turns milky when carbon dioxide is passed through it, indicating CO₂ presence 🌫️.

Uses of Calcium Compounds 🏭

• In agriculture to treat acidic soils 🌱.
• Neutralizes acidic industrial waste 🚫.
• Used in plaster of Paris for broken limbs 🦴.
• Lining in blast furnaces and drying agents for gases 💨.

Exercises on Calcium Compounds 📝

1. Write the chemical equation for the decomposition of calcium carbonate 🧪.

2. Explain how limewater can be used to test for carbon dioxide 🌫️.

3. Describe the uses of calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide in industry 🏭.

Conclusion 📚

This document covers the essential properties, preparation methods, physical and chemical properties, and uses of various non-metals, with a focus on their role in industrial and household applications 🏭.